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Year Event Detailed Description Territorial Composition Ruling Dynasty
751 Rise of Carolingian Dynasty Pepin the Short, mayor of the palace, deposes the last Merovingian king and is crowned King of the Franks with papal support. This marks the beginning of Carolingian rule and lays the foundation for the future empire. Francia (modern-day France, western Germany, Low Countries) Carolingian
768 Charlemagne becomes King Charlemagne and his brother Carloman inherit the Frankish kingdoms from their father Pepin. Charlemagne becomes sole ruler after Carloman's death in 771, significantly expanding Frankish territory through numerous military campaigns. Francia, northern Italy Carolingian
800 Charlemagne crowned Emperor On Christmas Day, Pope Leo III crowns Charlemagne as "Emperor of the Romans" in St. Peter's Basilica. This act revives the concept of the Western Roman Empire and challenges the Byzantine claim to universal rule. Francia, northern and central Italy, northern Spain (Spanish March), parts of central Europe Carolingian
814 Death of Charlemagne Charlemagne dies and is succeeded by his only surviving son, Louis the Pious. Louis struggles to maintain the unity of the vast empire, facing rebellions from his sons and external threats. Same as 800, with increased control in Saxony and Bavaria Carolingian
843 Treaty of Verdun Following a civil war among Louis the Pious's sons, the empire is divided. Charles the Bald receives West Francia (France), Louis the German gets East Francia (Germany), and Lothair I receives the Middle Kingdom and the imperial title. This division marks the beginning of separate French and German kingdoms. East Francia (mostly modern Germany), parts of northern Italy Carolingian (divided)
911 End of Carolingian rule in East Francia Louis the Child, the last Carolingian ruler of East Francia, dies without an heir. The nobles elect Conrad I of Franconia as king, ending Carolingian rule in the eastern kingdom and beginning the tradition of elective monarchy. East Francia (Germany), Bohemia (as tributary), parts of northern Italy Transitional
919 Henry the Fowler elected King The Franconian and Saxon nobles elect Henry the Fowler (Henry I) as King of East Francia. He strengthens royal power, reforms the army, and successfully defends against Magyar invasions, laying the groundwork for the Ottonian dynasty. East Francia, Bohemia, Moravia Ottonian (Saxon)
962 Otto I crowned Emperor Otto I, son of Henry the Fowler, is crowned Emperor by Pope John XII in Rome. This event is traditionally seen as the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire. Otto's coronation reasserts imperial control over Italy and establishes a close but complex relationship between the Empire and the Papacy. East Francia, Kingdom of Italy, Bohemia, parts of Burgundy Ottonian (Saxon)
1024 Conrad II becomes Emperor With the death of Henry II, the last Ottonian emperor, Conrad II is elected as the first Salian emperor. He strengthens imperial authority and acquires the Kingdom of Burgundy, expanding imperial territory. Germany, northern Italy, Burgundy, Bohemia Salian
1122 Concordat of Worms This agreement between Pope Callixtus II and Emperor Henry V ends the lengthy Investiture Controversy. It separates spiritual and temporal powers in ecclesiastical appointments, marking a compromise between papal and imperial authority. Germany, northern Italy, Burgundy, Bohemia, parts of Poland Salian
1138 Conrad III elected King After the end of the Salian dynasty, Conrad III becomes the first Hohenstaufen ruler. His reign is marked by conflicts with the Welfs, beginning the long-standing Ghibelline (imperial) vs. Guelf rivalry. Germany, northern Italy, Burgundy, Bohemia Hohenstaufen
1156 Privilegium Minus Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa grants the Privilegium Minus, elevating Austria to a duchy and granting significant privileges to the Babenberg rulers. This act lays the foundation for the later rise of Habsburg power. Germany, northern Italy, Burgundy, Bohemia, Austria Hohenstaufen
1250 Death of Frederick II The death of Frederick II, known as "Stupor Mundi" (Wonder of the World), marks the end of effective Hohenstaufen rule. His death is followed by the Great Interregnum, a period of imperial weakness and competing claims to the throne. Germany, parts of northern Italy, Burgundy, Bohemia, Austria End of Hohenstaufen
1273 Rudolf I elected King Rudolf of Habsburg is elected as King of the Romans, marking the first Habsburg to hold imperial office. He focuses on consolidating Habsburg family lands rather than asserting strong imperial authority in Italy. Germany, parts of northern Italy, Burgundy, Bohemia, Austria Habsburg (first reign)
1308 Henry VII elected King Henry of Luxembourg is elected king, beginning the short-lived Luxembourg dynasty. He attempts to reassert imperial authority in Italy but dies on campaign in 1313. Germany, parts of northern Italy, Burgundy, Bohemia, Austria Luxembourg
1356 Golden Bull of 1356 Emperor Charles IV issues the Golden Bull, a constitutional document that codifies the election process for the Emperor. It establishes a fixed college of seven prince-electors, reducing papal influence and aristocratic infighting in imperial elections. Germany, Bohemia, parts of northern Italy, Burgundy, Austria Luxembourg
1438 Albert II becomes Emperor Albert II, Duke of Austria, is elected King of the Romans and becomes Emperor, beginning the continuous rule of the Habsburg dynasty over the Holy Roman Empire until its dissolution. Germany, Bohemia, parts of northern Italy, Austria, Hungary (personal union) Habsburg
1516 Charles V inherits Spain Charles of Habsburg, grandson of Maximilian I and the Catholic Monarchs, inherits the Spanish throne. This unites the Habsburg and Spanish lines, creating a vast Habsburg empire spanning Europe and the Americas. HRE: Germany, Italy, Low Countries, Austria; Spain: Iberia, S. Italy, Americas Habsburg
1519 Charles V elected Holy Roman Emperor Charles V is elected Holy Roman Emperor, combining rule over the Holy Roman Empire with his Spanish and Burgundian inheritances. This makes him the most powerful European monarch since Charlemagne. HRE + Spain and its territories Habsburg
1521 Diet of Worms Martin Luther is summoned to the Diet of Worms to defend his 95 Theses. He refuses to recant, leading Charles V to issue the Edict of Worms declaring Luther an outlaw and banned heretic. This event deepens the religious divide in the Empire. HRE + Spain and its territories Habsburg
1526 Battle of Mohács The Ottoman Empire defeats the Kingdom of Hungary. The death of King Louis II allows Ferdinand I of Habsburg to claim the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia, significantly expanding Habsburg territory but also bringing them into direct conflict with the Ottomans. HRE + Spain, Hungary, Bohemia Habsburg
1530 Charles V crowned Holy Roman Emperor Charles V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII in Bologna. This is the last imperial coronation performed by a pope, marking a shift in the Empire's relationship with the Papacy. HRE + Spain and its territories Habsburg
1546-47 Schmalkaldic War Charles V leads Catholic forces to victory against the Protestant Schmalkaldic League. Despite this victory, Charles fails to reimpose Catholic unity on the Empire, foreshadowing the religious compromises to come. HRE + Spain and its territories Habsburg
1555 Peace of Augsburg This religious settlement allows German princes to select either Lutheranism or Catholicism for their realms (cuius regio, eius religio). It brings temporary stability to the Empire but lays the groundwork for future conflicts. Charles V, disillusioned, begins the process of abdication. HRE + Spain and its territories (soon to be divided) Habsburg
1556 Abdication of Charles V Charles V abdicates, dividing the Habsburg territories. His brother Ferdinand I receives the imperial title and the Austrian lands, while his son Philip II inherits Spain and its territories. This split creates the Spanish and Austrian Habsburg lines. HRE: Central Europe; Spain: Iberia, Italy, Low Countries, Americas Habsburg (divided)
1618-1648 Thirty Years' War A devastating conflict begins as a religious civil war in Bohemia but evolves into a general European war. It significantly weakens imperial authority and devastates much of Central Europe. Germany, Bohemia, parts of northern Italy, Austria, parts of Low Countries Habsburg
1648 Peace of Westphalia This series of treaties ends the Thirty Years' War and establishes the principle of state sovereignty. It significantly weakens imperial authority, granting German princes near-total autonomy in foreign policy. The Swiss Confederation and Dutch Republic formally leave the Empire. Germany, Bohemia, parts of northern Italy, Austria Habsburg
1740-1748 War of Austrian Succession Following the death of Charles VI, his daughter Maria Theresa's claim to the Habsburg lands is challenged, leading to a major European conflict. The war results in Prussia's acquisition of Silesia and demonstrates the Empire's weakness. Germany, Bohemia, parts of northern Italy, Austria Habsburg
1772-1795 Partitions of Poland Austria, along with Prussia and Russia, participates in three partitions of Poland. While expanding Habsburg territory, these actions occur outside the framework of the Holy Roman Empire, highlighting its diminishing relevance. Germany, Bohemia, parts of northern Italy, Austria, Polish territories Habsburg
1803 German Mediatisation Under pressure from Napoleon, the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss is enacted, greatly reducing the number of ecclesiastical states and free imperial cities. This major territorial restructuring further weakens the already fragile imperial structure. Reduced to core German territories, Austria, Bohemia Habsburg
1806 Dissolution of the Empire Following defeat by Napoleon at Austerlitz, Emperor Francis II dissolves the Holy Roman Empire, ending more than 800 years of imperial history. Francis continues to rule Austria as Emperor Francis I of Austria. Empire dissolved Habsburg (last Emperor)