| Early Dynastic Egypt |
c. 3100-2686 BCE |
- Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under King Narmer (Menes)
- Development of hieroglyphic writing and calendar system
- Establishment of Memphis as capital
- Construction of early mastaba tombs
- Development of irrigation systems along the Nile
- Creation of the royal titulary
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| Old Kingdom Egypt |
c. 2686-2181 BCE |
- Age of pyramid-building (3rd-6th Dynasties)
- Construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza under Khufu (c. 2560 BCE)
- Centralized government under the pharaoh
- Development of solar cult and rise of Ra worship
- Expansion of trade with Nubia and Punt
- Establishment of the position of vizier
- Decline due to prolonged droughts and famine
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| Akkadian Empire |
c. 2334-2154 BCE |
- Founded by Sargon of Akkad, first multi-ethnic empire in Mesopotamia
- Introduction of the concept of divine kingship
- Standardization of weights, measures, and legal practices
- Expansion of trade networks to the Indus Valley
- Development of new artistic styles, including relief sculpture
- Naram-Sin's conquest of Ebla and self-deification
- Collapse possibly due to climate change (4.2 kiloyear event)
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| Middle Kingdom Egypt |
c. 2055-1650 BCE |
- Reunification of Egypt under Mentuhotep II
- Expansion into Nubia and establishment of fortresses
- Shift of capital to Thebes
- Development of coffin texts and new burial practices
- Construction of the Faiyum irrigation system
- Increased trade with the Levant and Nubia
- Introduction of the shabti funerary figurines
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| Old Assyrian Empire |
c. 2025-1378 BCE |
- Establishment of trading colonies in Anatolia (karum)
- Development of cuneiform writing system
- Rise of Ashur as an important religious center
- King Erishum I's reforms and building projects
- Conflicts with Amorite tribes and Babylonians
- Decline due to Mitanni expansion
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| Old Babylonian Empire |
c. 1894-1595 BCE |
- Founded by Amorite dynasty under Sumu-abum
- c. 1792-1750 BCE: Reign of Hammurabi
- Creation of Hammurabi's Code, one of the earliest legal codes
- Expansion of empire to control most of Mesopotamia
- Development of complex bureaucracy and taxation system
- Advancements in mathematics and astronomy
- Fall to Hittite raid in 1595 BCE
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| Hittite Empire |
c. 1600-1178 BCE |
- Dominated much of Anatolia and northern Levant
- Development of advanced bronze-working techniques
- Introduction of iron-working to the Near East
- 1274 BCE: Battle of Kadesh with Egypt under Ramesses II
- Creation of world's first known peace treaty (with Egypt)
- Development of cuneiform Hittite language
- Collapse during the Bronze Age collapse, possibly due to climate change
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| New Kingdom Egypt |
c. 1550-1069 BCE |
- Expulsion of the Hyksos and reunification under Ahmose I
- Imperial expansion into Levant and Nubia
- Construction of grand temples at Karnak and Luxor
- 18th Dynasty: Hatshepsut's reign, Thutmose III's conquests
- Akhenaten's religious reforms and move to Amarna
- Ramesses II's long reign and military campaigns
- Development of rock-cut tombs in the Valley of the Kings
- Gradual decline due to internal strife and Sea Peoples invasions
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| Middle Assyrian Empire |
c. 1392-1056 BCE |
- Expansion under Ashur-uballit I, throwing off Mitanni control
- Conflicts with Hittites and Babylonians
- Tukulti-Ninurta I's conquest of Babylon (c. 1225 BCE)
- Development of distinctive palace architecture
- Compilation of Assyrian law code
- Tiglath-Pileser I's military campaigns and lion hunts
- Decline due to Aramean migrations
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| Neo-Assyrian Empire |
911-609 BCE |
- Resurgence under Adad-nirari II
- Ashurnasirpal II's brutal military campaigns and construction projects
- 720 BCE: Sargon II conquers Israel and deports population
- 701 BCE: Sennacherib's siege of Jerusalem
- 671 BCE: Esarhaddon conquers Egypt
- Ashurbanipal's creation of library at Nineveh
- Development of relief sculpture and palace decoration
- 612 BCE: Fall of Nineveh to combined Babylonian and Median forces
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| Neo-Babylonian Empire |
626-539 BCE |
- Nabopolassar founds empire, allying with Medes against Assyria
- 605-562 BCE: Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II
- 586 BCE: Destruction of Jerusalem and Babylonian Captivity
- Construction of the Hanging Gardens and Ishtar Gate
- Renovation of Etemenanki (Tower of Babel)
- Advancements in astronomy and mathematics
- 539 BCE: Conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia
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| Achaemenid Persian Empire |
550-330 BCE |
- 550 BCE: Founded by Cyrus the Great
- Development of Imperial Aramaic as administrative language
- Creation of Royal Road network and efficient postal system
- 525 BCE: Cambyses II's conquest of Egypt
- Darius I's administrative reforms and construction of Persepolis
- 490 & 480-479 BCE: Greco-Persian Wars
- Development of Zoroastrianism as quasi-state religion
- 330 BCE: Conquered by Alexander the Great
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| Seleucid Empire |
312-63 BCE |
- Founded by Seleucus I Nicator, a general of Alexander
- Hellenistic state spanning much of the former Persian Empire
- Establishment of new cities, including Antioch
- Conflicts with Ptolemaic Egypt in the Syrian Wars
- Patronage of science and philosophy, especially in Babylon
- 190 BCE: Defeat by Romans at Battle of Magnesia
- Gradual loss of territory to Parthians and Romans
- 63 BCE: Annexed by Roman Republic
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| Ptolemaic Egypt |
305-30 BCE |
- Hellenistic rule in Egypt under Macedonian dynasty
- Alexandria becomes center of learning (Library of Alexandria)
- Syncretism of Greek and Egyptian cultures and religions
- Development of Ptolemaic dynastic cult
- Scientific advancements by scholars like Euclid and Eratosthenes
- Gradual decline and increasing Roman influence
- 30 BCE: Cleopatra VII's death, annexed by Rome
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| Parthian Empire |
247 BCE - 224 CE |
- Founded by Arsaces I, defeating the Seleucids
- Development of distinctive art style, blending Hellenistic and Persian elements
- Frequent wars with Roman Empire, including Crassus' defeat at Carrhae (53 BCE)
- Control of Silk Road trade
- Revival of Zoroastrianism and Persian culture
- Decentralized feudal structure with powerful noble houses
- Gradual decline due to internal strife and Roman pressure
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| Sasanian Empire |
224-651 CE |
- Founded by Ardashir I, last pre-Islamic Persian Empire
- Establishment of Zoroastrianism as state religion
- Continued wars with Roman/Byzantine Empire
- Khosrow I's administrative and tax reforms
- Sponsorship of arts, philosophy, and sciences
- Development of distinctive architecture (e.g., Taq Kasra)
- 602-628 CE: Final Byzantine-Sasanian War weakens empire
- 636-651 CE: Muslim conquest of Persia
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| Rashidun Caliphate |
632-661 CE |
- First four caliphs after Muhammad: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali
- Rapid expansion of Islamic rule into Persia, Levant, and Egypt
- Standardization of Quran under Uthman
- Development of early Islamic administrative systems
- 656-661 CE: First Fitna (civil war)
- Establishment of garrison cities like Kufa and Basra
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| Umayyad Caliphate |
661-750 CE |
- Capital in Damascus under Muawiyah I
- Expansion into North Africa, Iberia, and Central Asia
- Development of Islamic coinage and fiscal reforms
- Construction of Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem
- Arabization of administration in conquered territories
- Development of early Islamic art and architecture
- 750 CE: Overthrown by Abbasid Revolution
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| Abbasid Caliphate |
750-1258 CE |
- Capital in Baghdad, founded by al-Mansur
- Islamic Golden Age: advancements in sciences, philosophy, and arts
- Translation movement of Greek and Persian texts
- Development of Islamic jurisprudence and theology
- Gradual fragmentation and rise of regional dynasties
- Patronage of scholars at the House of Wisdom
- 1258 CE: Fall of Baghdad to Mongol invasion
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| Ottoman Empire |
1299-1922 CE |
- Founded by Osman I in Anatolia
- 1453: Conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed II
- Peak under Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566)
- Development of distinctive Ottoman architecture and art
- Establishment of millet system for governing diverse populations
- 16th-17th centuries: Control of much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa
- Gradual decline and modernization attempts in 19th century
- 1922: Abolition of sultanate, replaced by Republic of Turkey
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