Ancient Rome

Kings of Rome

Period	Rulers	Description
753-716 BCE	Romulus	Legendary founder and first King of Rome
716-673 BCE	Numa Pompilius	Second King, focused on religious and legal reforms
673-642 BCE	Tullus Hostilius	Third King, known for his warlike nature
642-617 BCE	Ancus Marcius	Fourth King, expanded Rome's territory
617-579 BCE	Lucius Tarquinius Priscus	Fifth King, of Etruscan origin
579-535 BCE	Servius Tullius	Sixth King, implemented social reforms
535-509 BCE	Lucius Tarquinius Superbus	Seventh and last King, overthrown in 509 BCE

Roman Republic

Period	Rulers	Description
509-501 BCE	Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus	First consuls of the Roman Republic
501-494 BCE	Various consuls	Annual elections of two consuls
494 BCE	First plebeian secession	Creation of Tribune of the Plebs
451-449 BCE	Decemviri	Ten-man commission that created the Law of the Twelve Tables
445 BCE	Lex Canuleia	Law allowing marriage between patricians and plebeians
367 BCE	Licinio-Sextian laws	One consul must be a plebeian
339 BCE	Lex Publilia	Both consuls can be plebeians
287 BCE	Lex Hortensia	Decisions of plebeian assembly (plebiscita) binding on all citizens

Punic Wars

War	Years (BC)	Cause	Key Battles/Events	Outcome	Reason for Ending
First Punic War	264-241	Competition over Sicily; Rome responded to a plea for help from Mamertines against Carthage	260: Battle of Mylae (Roman naval victory) 256: Battle of Cape Ecnomus (Roman naval victory) 255: Battle of Tunis (Carthaginian victory) 241: Battle of the Aegates Islands (Decisive Roman naval victory)	Roman Victory	Carthage, exhausted and unable to continue financing the war, sued for peace after the Battle of the Aegates Islands
Interwar Period	241-218	N/A	238: Mercenary War in Carthage 228-218: Carthaginian expansion in Hispania under Hamilcar Barca and Hannibal	N/A	N/A
Second Punic War	218-201	Carthaginian expansion in Hispania; Rome perceived this as a threat. Immediate cause: Hannibal's attack on Saguntum, a Roman ally	218: Hannibal crosses the Alps 218: Battle of Trebia (Carthaginian victory) 217: Battle of Lake Trasimene (Carthaginian victory) 216: Battle of Cannae (Major Carthaginian victory) 202: Battle of Zama (Decisive Roman victory)	Roman Victory	Roman victory at Zama forced Carthage to accept harsh peace terms, effectively ending its power as a major Mediterranean force
Interwar Period	201-149	N/A	Carthage pays war indemnities to Rome Rome interferes in Carthaginian affairs Carthage attempts economic recovery	N/A	N/A
Third Punic War	149-146	Roman fear of Carthage's economic recovery; Cato the Elder's persistent call for Carthage's destruction	149-146: Siege of Carthage	Roman Victory	Complete destruction of Carthage; the city was razed, its inhabitants enslaved, and its territories became the Roman province of Africa

Significant Leaders of Roman Republic after Punic Wars

133 BCE	Tiberius Gracchus	Tribune who proposed land reforms, killed in political violence
123-122 BCE	Gaius Gracchus	Brother of Tiberius, continued reforms, also killed
107-100 BCE	Gaius Marius	Elected consul an unprecedented seven times, reformed the army
88-78 BCE	Lucius Cornelius Sulla	Marched on Rome, became dictator, implemented constitutional reforms
70 BCE	First Triumvirate	Informal alliance between Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar

Year (BC)	Event	Details
100	Julius Caesar is born in Rome	Born to Gaius Julius Caesar and Aurelia Cotta, into a patrician family
85	Becomes the head of his family	After his father's death, 16-year-old Caesar becomes the head of the family
84	Marries Cornelia	Cornelia is the daughter of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, a powerful member of the Populares faction
82	Flees Rome	Refuses Sulla's order to divorce Cornelia; stripped of inheritance and priesthood; goes into hiding
80-78	Military service	Serves under Marcus Minucius Thermus in Asia and Cilicia, wins the Civic Crown for saving a citizen's life
78	Returns to Rome	Returns after Sulla's death; begins his career as an orator and lawyer
73	Elected as pontifex	Becomes a member of the college of pontiffs, an important religious position
69	Quaestor in Spain; wife dies	Serves as quaestor (financial administrator) in Hispania; Cornelia dies during childbirth
67	Marries Pompeia	Second marriage, to Pompeia, granddaughter of Sulla
65	Elected as curule aedile	Organizes public games and festivals, gaining popularity among the masses
63	Elected as Pontifex Maximus	Becomes the high priest of the Roman state religion, a powerful lifelong position
62	Divorces Pompeia	Divorces after the Bona Dea scandal, saying "Caesar's wife must be above suspicion"
61	Governor of Hispania Ulterior	Gains military experience and settles the province's debt
60	Forms the First Triumvirate	Political alliance with Pompey and Crassus, dominating Roman politics
59	Consul; marries Calpurnia	Passes laws benefiting Pompey and Crassus; marries Calpurnia, his third and last wife
58-50	Governor of Gaul; Gallic Wars	Conquers Gaul (modern France and Belgium), invades Britain twice, writes "Commentarii de Bello Gallico"
49	Crosses the Rubicon	Famously says "The die is cast" as he crosses with his army, starting a civil war
48	Defeats Pompey	Decisive victory at the Battle of Pharsalus; Pompey flees to Egypt and is assassinated
47	Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII	Intervenes in Egyptian civil war, installs Cleopatra as queen; "Veni, vidi, vici" after defeating Pharnaces II
46	Dictator for 10 years	Returns to Rome, appointed dictator for 10 years; reforms calendar, government, and Roman law
45	Final victory in civil war	Defeats last of Pompey's supporters at Battle of Munda in Spain
44 (Feb)	Dictator for life	Appointed "Dictator perpetuo", effectively ending the Roman Republic
44 (Mar 15)	Assassinated	Killed by a group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius, triggering a new civil war
44-42 BC	Aftermath of Caesar's assassination	- Mark Antony delivers a funeral oration, turning public opinion against the assassins - Octavian (later Augustus), Caesar's adopted heir, returns to Rome to claim his inheritance - Second Triumvirate formed between Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus - Civil war ensues, culminating in the Battle of Philippi (42 BC) where Brutus and Cassius are defeated - The Roman Republic effectively ends, leading to the formation of the Roman Empire
31 BC - 14 AD	Octavian becomes Emperor Augustus	- 31 BC: Octavian defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium - 27 BC: Octavian is granted the title of Augustus by the Senate

Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 BC - 68 AD)

Emperor	Reign	Key Events	Transfer of Power
Augustus	27 BC - 14 AD	Established the Principate Pax Romana begins Expanded the Empire	Gradually accumulated power after victory in civil wars Adopted and groomed Tiberius as successor
Tiberius	14 - 37	Continued Augustus' policies Strengthened the Empire's finances	Adopted son of Augustus Succession pre-arranged, smooth transition
Caligula	37 - 41	Initially popular, later known for extravagance and cruelty Declared himself a living god	Grandson of Tiberius Widely popular at accession Assassinated by Praetorian Guard
Claudius	41 - 54	Successful invasion and conquest of Britain Expanded citizenship rights	Uncle of Caligula Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard after Caligula's assassination
Nero	54 - 68	Great Fire of Rome (64 AD) Persecution of Christians	Adopted son of Claudius Supported by Praetorian Prefect Burrus and philosopher Seneca Forced to commit suicide amid revolts

Year of the Four Emperors (68 - 69 AD)

Emperor	Reign	Key Events	Transfer of Power
Galba	68 - 69	First emperor in the Year of the Four Emperors	Declared emperor by Spanish legions Recognized by Senate after Nero's suicide Assassinated by Praetorian Guard
Otho	69	Briefly ruled for three months	Orchestrated Galba's assassination Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard Committed suicide after military defeat
Vitellius	69	Known for extravagance and cruelty	Acclaimed by German legions Defeated Otho militarily Killed by Vespasian's troops

Flavian Dynasty (69 - 96 AD)

Emperor	Reign	Key Events	Transfer of Power
Vespasian	69 - 79	Restored stability after the civil war Began construction of the Colosseum	Proclaimed emperor by Eastern legions Defeated Vitellius in civil war
Titus	79 - 81	Completed the Colosseum Dealt with eruption of Vesuvius (79 AD)	Son of Vespasian Smooth succession, already co-ruler
Domitian	81 - 96	Expanded the border defenses Declared himself 'dominus et deus'	Younger son of Vespasian Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard Assassinated in palace conspiracy

Nerva-Antonine Dynasty (96 - 192 AD)

Emperor	Reign	Key Events	Transfer of Power
Nerva	96 - 98	First of the "Five Good Emperors" Instituted social reforms	Chosen by Senate after Domitian's assassination Adopted Trajan to secure military support
Trajan	98 - 117	Expanded Empire to its greatest territorial extent	Adopted son of Nerva Smooth transition, already designated heir
Hadrian	117 - 138	Built Hadrian's Wall in Britain Traveled extensively throughout the Empire	Adopted son of Trajan (contested) Succession announced after Trajan's death
Antoninus Pius	138 - 161	Long period of peace and prosperity	Adopted by Hadrian Smooth transition, already designated heir
Marcus Aurelius	161 - 180	Philosopher emperor, wrote "Meditations"	Adopted son of Antoninus Pius Smooth transition, already co-emperor
Commodus	177 - 192	End of the Pax Romana Declared himself Hercules	Son of Marcus Aurelius First biological son to succeed in the Nerva-Antonine dynasty Assassinated, ending the dynasty

Year of the Five Emperors and Severan Dynasty (193 - 235 AD)

Emperor	Reign	Key Events	Transfer of Power
Pertinax	193	Attempted reforms	Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard Killed by Guard after 3 months
Didius Julianus	193	"Bought" the throne from Praetorian Guard	Won auction for throne held by Praetorian Guard Executed after Septimius Severus' march on Rome
Septimius Severus	193 - 211	Founded the Severan dynasty Defeated rival claimants	Proclaimed by Pannonian legions Won civil war against other claimants
Caracalla	198 - 217	Issued Antonine Constitution	Son of Septimius Severus Co-emperor, then sole ruler after killing his brother Geta
Macrinus	217 - 218	First non-senatorial emperor	Praetorian Prefect who orchestrated Caracalla's assassination Overthrown by Elagabalus
Elagabalus	218 - 222	Introduced cult of Syrian sun god	Proclaimed emperor by Syrian legions Assassinated by Praetorian Guard
Severus Alexander	222 - 235	Last of the Severan dynasty	Cousin of Elagabalus Chosen by Praetorian Guard and Senate Assassinated by his own troops

Crisis of the Third Century (235 - 284 AD)

Emperor	Reign	Key Events	Transfer of Power
Maximinus Thrax	235 - 238	First "barracks emperor" Campaigned successfully against Germanic tribes	Proclaimed by troops after Alexander's assassination Killed by own soldiers during siege of Aquileia
Gordian III	238 - 244	Youngest sole Roman emperor Fought against the Sasanian Empire	Grandson of Gordian I Proclaimed by Senate during complex Year of Six Emperors Died on campaign, possibly assassinated
Philip the Arab	244 - 249	Celebrated Rome's 1000th anniversary Made peace with Sasanian Empire	Praetorian Prefect under Gordian III Possibly orchestrated Gordian's death Killed in battle against Decius
Decius	249 - 251	Empire-wide persecution of Christians	Proclaimed emperor by troops Defeated Philip in battle Killed in battle against Goths
Valerian	253 - 260	Captured by Sasanian King Shapur I	Proclaimed emperor by Rhine and Danube legions Captured in battle, died in captivity
Gallienus	253 - 268	Faced numerous usurpers Reformed the army, creating a mobile cavalry force	Son of Valerian, co-emperor then sole ruler Assassinated by own officers
Aurelian	270 - 275	"Restorer of the World" Reunified the Empire, defeating Palmyrene and Gallic Empires	Acclaimed by troops after Claudius' death Assassinated by officers tricked by his secretary

Tetrarchy and Constantine Dynasty (284 - 364 AD)

Emperor	Reign	Key Events	Transfer of Power
Diocletian	284 - 305	Established the Tetrarchy Implemented major administrative and tax reforms	Acclaimed by army after Numerian's death Voluntarily abdicated in 305
Constantine I	306 - 337	Issued Edict of Milan, legalizing Christianity Founded Constantinople	Proclaimed by troops upon father's death Won series of civil wars to become sole ruler
Constantine II	337 - 340	Ruled the Western provinces	Son of Constantine I Killed in civil war against brother Constans
Constantius II	337 - 361	Fought constantly against the Sasanian Empire Supported Arian Christianity	Son of Constantine I Became sole ruler after deaths of brothers

Valentinian Dynasty (364 - 392 AD)

Emperor	Reign	Key Events	Transfer of Power
Valentinian I	364 - 375	Strengthened Rhine and Danube frontiers	Elected by army officers after Jovian's death
Valens	364 - 378	Killed at Battle of Adrianople	Appointed as co-emperor by brother Valentinian I
Gratian	367 - 383	Fought Alemanni and Goths	Son of Valentinian I Assassinated during Magnus Maximus' usurpation
Valentinian II	375 - 392	Ruled under regency	Son of Valentinian I Proclaimed emperor at age 4 Died under suspicious circumstances

Theodosian Dynasty (379 - 455 AD)

Emperor	Reign	Key Events	Transfer of Power
Theodosius I	379 - 395	Made Christianity the official state religion Last emperor to rule both East and West	Appointed by Gratian to rule East Became sole ruler after defeating usurpers
Honorius	395 - 423	Sack of Rome by Visigoths (410 AD) Britain abandoned by Roman forces	Son of Theodosius I Became Western emperor at age 10 under regency
Valentinian III	425 - 455	Attila the Hun invades Gaul and Italy	Son of Constantius III and Galla Placidia Placed on throne at age 6 Assassinated, possibly due to personal vendetta

Last Western Emperors (455 - 476 AD)

Emperor	Reign	Key Events	Transfer of Power
Petronius Maximus	455	Rome sacked by the Vandals	Seized power after Valentinian III's death Killed by mob during Vandal invasion
Avitus	455 - 456	Never fully accepted in Italy	Proclaimed emperor with Visigothic support Deposed by Ricimer, forced to become bishop
Majorian	457 - 461	Last capable Western Emperor Attempted to reconquer lost territories	Appointed by Eastern emperor Leo I Deposed and executed by Ricimer
Libius Severus	461 - 465	Puppet of military commander Ricimer	Proclaimed emperor by Ricimer Probably poisoned by Ricimer
Anthemius	467 - 472	Failed campaign against Vandals	Appointed by Eastern emperor Leo I Killed on Ricimer's orders
Olybrius	472	Another puppet of Ricimer	Proclaimed by Ricimer Died of natural causes after short reign
Glycerius	473 - 474	Appointed by Burgundian king Gundobad	Proclaimed emperor by Gundobad Deposed by Julius Nepos, forced to become bishop
Julius Nepos	474 - 475 (in Italy) 475 - 480 (in Dalmatia)	Recognized by the Eastern Empire Continued to claim imperial title from Dalmatia after 475	Appointed by Eastern emperor Leo I Fled to Dalmatia after Orestes' revolt Assassinated in 480, likely on Odoacer's orders
Romulus Augustulus	475 - 476	Last Western Roman Emperor His deposition traditionally marks the fall of the Western Roman Empire	Installed by his father Orestes, the Magister militum Deposed by Odoacer, ending the Western Roman Empire Reportedly sent to live on a pension in Campania

End of the Western Roman Empire

After the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476 AD, Odoacer became the first King of Italy. He nominally recognized the authority of the Eastern Roman Emperor but ruled Italy as an independent kingdom. This event is traditionally considered the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Western Europe.

It's worth noting that Julius Nepos, who had been deposed in 475, continued to claim the title of Western Emperor from his power base in Dalmatia until his assassination in 480. Some historians consider him the last legitimate Western Roman Emperor.

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